By X. Topork. Albright College.

Cells must pass through the mitotic phase of the cell cycle (M proven luvox 100mg, middle frame) in order for the vector to gain access to the chromatin and integrate into the genome (right frame) luvox 100mg fast delivery. There have been no documented adverse events related to inser- tional mutagenesis in early human clinical studies or in preclinical animal studies using replication-defective viral vectors cheap 50 mg luvox fast delivery. First, cells must pass through the mitotic phase of the cell cycle in order for the vector to gain access to the chromatin and integrate (Fig. Most stem cells reside in the G0 phase of the cell cycle, and manipulations that stimulate these cells to cycle ex vivo may result in irreversible lineage commitment or apoptosis. This technique improves transduction efficiency of mature lymphocytes and possibly hematopoi- etic stem cells. Absolutely convincing preclinical data regarding efficacy and lack of replication-competent virus must be obtained prior to human use. However,applications requiring only transient expression in lymphocytes or dendritic cells are attractive. Adenovirus (Ad) vectors have been explored primarily for in vivo gene delivery for the transfection of both dividing and nondividing cells. The immune response induced by Ad vectors, although a major disadvantage, is also being considered as a possible advantage for transduction of tumor cells with cytokines, co-stimulatory molecules, or other immune modulators in cancer vaccine protocols (see Chapter 13). These applications, thoroughly investigated in solid tumor animal models, are also being applied to hematologic malignancies such as leukemias and lymphomas. Normal primitive hematopoietic cells can be transduced by Ad, but only with very highly concentrated vector preparations that also result in significant toxicity. Transient expression in primitive cells may be of interest in manipulating homing after transplantation. The advantages of nonviral vectors include the lack of any risk of generation of replication-competent infectious particles, independence from target cell cycling during transduction, and elimination of antivector immune response induced by viral proteins. However, transduction efficiency of primary cells is very low, and physical methods such as electroporation or chemical shock used to increase gene transfer efficiency of plasmids into cell lines are either inefficient or toxic. Encapsulation by lipsomes has been useful for some primary cell types, as has conjugation to molecular conjugates including polyamines and inacti- vated adenovirus. However, none of these nonviral methods has shown any promise in the transduction of hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells. None of these vectors integrate, and expression levels are generally lower than reported with viral vectors. Less obvious are the application to tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, and central nervous system microglial cells (Chapter 9). Lineage-specific control ele- ments need to be included to allow for differential expression in the appropriate mature cell type; for example, the use of hemoglobin gene enhancers to target expression to red blood cells. The genetic correction of these cells offer a potential curative, one-time therapy for a wide variety of congenital disorders such as hemoglobinopathies, immunodeficiencies, or metabolic storage diseases. The discovery and isolation of hematopoietic cytokines in the mid-1980s allowed successful ex vivo culture and transduction, resulting in the first successful demonstration of efficient gene transfer into murine repopulating stem cells. An additional obstacle is the observation that the most primitive pluripotent hematopoietic cells appear to be predominantly in the quiescent G0 phase of the cell cycle. Attempts to increase cycling of primitive cells during transduction by prolonged culture in the presence of various combina- tions of hematopoietic cytokines has resulted in decreased engrafting ability. This is due to either loss of self-renewal properties, induction of apoptosis, or alteration in homing ability. Additionally, a characteristic of primative hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells that inhibits efficient gene transfer is the low level of expression of receptors for a number of vectors including retroviruses and adenoassociated viruses. Lastly, many clinical applications are in nonmalignant disease where the use of high-dose ablative conditioning therapy prior to reinfusion of genetically cor- rected autologous stem cells is unacceptably toxic. Only with the use of high doses of stem cells can significant levels of engraftment occur without the use of high-dose conditioning chemotherapy or total body irradiation. Preclinical Studies Initial retroviral gene transfer into murine hematopoietic repopulating cells was achieved in 1984. The discovery, availability, and application of various hematopoi- etic growth factors improved the efficiency of ex vivo retroviral transduction of murine hematopoietic cells. Several different combinations of growth factors have been successfully used for supporting gene transfer into murine stem cells. These cytokines and growth factors maintain primitive cell physiology ex vivo and poten- tially stimulate primitive cells to cycle without differentiation. Other manipulations that have been found beneficial in the murine system include (1) treatment of animals with 5-fluorouracil before marrow harvest to stimulate cycling of primitive cells, (2) the co-culture of target cells directly on a layer of retroviral producer cells or other stromal support, 5 (3) the use of high titer (greater than 10 viral particles per ml) vector and (4) co- localization of vector and target cells using fibronectin-coated dishes. The persistence of vector sequences in short-lived granulocytes and in multiple-lineage hematopoietic cells from serially transplanted mice indicates that murine repopulating stem cells can be successfully modified with retroviral vectors. Other supportive data include retroviral integration site analysis docu- menting the common transduced clones from different lineages.

Decompression of pneumothorax using needle or tube thoracostomy (describe procedure to examiner) g cheap 100 mg luvox with amex. Patient stated that while standing outside of a bar with her boyfriend she was stabbed once to the right anterior chest by an intoxicated male who ran away with her purse generic 100 mg luvox overnight delivery. Social: divorced cheap 50mg luvox, lives alone, 1 pack per day smoker since age 18, no drugs, not sexually active 392 Case 90: stab to Chest g. Neck: full range of motion, no jugular vein distension (if chest tube in place), no stridor g. Needle decompression: breath sounds slightly diminished on right side, good air entry to left side, no wheezing or crackles, no ecchymosis, no crep- itus, no bony tenderness ii. Chest tube: chest tube in right 4th intercostals space, midaxillary line, good air entry bilaterally, no wheezing or crackles, 2 cm linear wound to right 3 to 4 intercostal space in the mid axillary line above chest tube, no ecchymosis, crepitus, and bony tenderness i. Female: no blood or discharge, cervical os closed, no cervical motion ten- derness, no adnexal tenderness m. This is a case of a tension pneumothorax in a patient who suffered a stab wound to the chest. The condition is caused by a one-way air leak into the chest cavity secondary to a punctured lung which leads to air accumulation of air and com- pression of the heart. The patient presented with unstable vitals (hypotension, tachycardia, mild hypoxia, and tachypnea), moderate respiratory distress, and decreased breath sounds on the right side. Diagnosis of tension pneumothorax often requires a high level of suspicion in the presence of decreased or absent breath sounds on the affected side. The correct treatment is emergent needle decompression followed by thoracostomy tube. If the patient’s pneumo- thorax is still not decompressed, the patient will go into cardiac arrest. Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition that requires prompt management. Tension pneumothorax is primarily a clinical diagnosis based on patient pre- sentation. Do not delay delivery of treatment modalities while waiting for imag- ing or lab studies. After needle decompression, immediately begin preparation to insert a tho-After needle decompression, immediately begin preparation to insert a tho- racostomy tube. Then reassess the patient, as hemothorax is common with pneumothorax, especially in trauma. She describes the pain as sharp, constant, and progressively worsening for the last 36 hours with nausea and subjective fevers and chills. She denies vomiting, back pain, urinary symptoms, and vaginal bleeding/dis- charge. Social: denies alcohol use, smoking, or illicit drug use; lives with husband at home, sexually active and monogamous g. Female: no blood or discharge, cervical os closed, no cervical motion ten- derness, no adnexal tenderness n. Patient still with signifcant discomfort, worsening until pain meds given, then discomfort improves c. If no antibiotics given, patient decompensates with worsening pain, low blood pressure, and high fever (sepsis) d. The patient’s symptoms of abdominal pain that is constant and localizing to the left lower quadrant are consistent with diverticulitis. If fuids are not administered, the patient will become more tachycardic and eventually hypotensive. Her pain will continue to increase until an opioid medication (such as morphine) is administered. When younger patients develop diverticulitis, it tends to be more severe and require earlier surgical intervention e. G1P1A0, 7 days postpartum after an uncomplicated Case 92: seizure 401 normal spontaneous vaginal delivery. Per husband, the patient has been “jerking her arms and legs” for about 2 to 3 minutes while sitting at the table after eating breakfast. He states his wife was in her usual state of health except for complaint of headache and mild blurry vision in the past few days. She normally takes blood pressure medicine for her chronic hypertension but has forgotten to take them since her discharge from the hospital 6 days ago. Social: lives with husband at home, denies alcohol, smoking, drugs, not sexu- ally active in the past 2 months g. Patient: having another generalized tonic-clonic seizure; seizure stopped on its own after 2 minutes H. Extremities: full range of motion, no deformity, normal pulses, 2+ bilateral pedal edema o. Neuro: grossly moving all four extremities, deep tendon refexes 2+, appears postictal q.

However buy luvox 100mg mastercard, it is unclear whether these deaths are related to the experimental therapy buy generic luvox 50mg. The majority of human gene therapy protocols involve cancer buy 50mg luvox free shipping, and the most common viral vector in use is the retrovirus. Most cancer studies are gene-marking studies where a cell is marked with a gene to elucidate metatasis or recurrence. The limited clinical experience to date does not rule out long-term adverse effects from gene therapy protocols as noted in Chapter 13. Thus, the ability to bring recent laboratory-based advances to the bedside relies on the quantity and quality of the underlying science, the carefulness used in clinical protocol design and outcome measure, as well as a multidisciplinary approach to bridging basic science and medicine. Currently, numerous basic science issues need to be addressed in the development of human gene therapy protocols. Gene Transfer Gene transfer can be achieved by two methods: direct transfer (in vivo) or laboratory manipulation (ex vivo). Utilizing these methods, gene transfer should be administered to the patient without adverse side effects. Various gene transfer protocols (systems) are currently under development and should be tailored to the clinical condition. In principle, studies in yeast have indicated that the development of artificial chromosome vectors may allow for the maintenance of transferred genes and obviating the problems of random insertion of viral constructs. Gene Expression Once a gene is transferred into a tissue or cell, expression of that gene is necessary for successful gene therapy. Currently, however, persistent high levels of gene expression are not consistently achieved in gene therapy protocols. It is unclear whether these experimental data reflect unknown cellular mechanisms needed for therapeutic gene expression, a selective disadvantage of the use of stem cells expressing transferred genes, or the failure to include appropriate regulatory elements in current gene constructs. What is clear from current human studies is that protocols that produce high levels of gene expression in mice do not reproduce similar gene expressions in clinical studies. Long-term expression of transferred genes and high levels of gene product have been reported in murine studies. But a deficiency arises when comparable pro- tocols are employed in clinical studies. Studies have relied on molecular methods of detection of gene expression rather that direct protein assays. Thus, at the current stage the lack of expression of transferred genes compromises both the clinical benefit and scientific value of gene therapy. Gene Targeting Gene therapy approaches could be enhanced by directing gene transfer and expres- sion to specific cells or tissues (see Chapter 5). Using such an approach would reduce the need for gene targeting required with in vivo transfer techniques. However, current ex vivo techniques could be enhanced by using targeting techniques such as that used in liver-cell-directed gene therapy (see Chapter 7). The use of ligands that bind to surface receptors could augment gene incorporation into the cell. Disease Pathology The identification of a genetic mutation as a cause of disease pathology is an im- portant step in gene therapy. However, equally important is the elucidation of the biological mechanisms through which the mutated polypeptide molecule induces pathogenesis. Mutations may cause loss of function so that gene therapy replaces the mutated gene product sufficiently for effective therapy. However, somatic muta- tion may also be dominant negative in the biological mechanism. Here, the mutated protein inhibits a cellular metabolic pathway and a therapeutic approach would be to delete expression of the mutated protein. Therefore, a detailed understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease is required for designing gene therapy protocols. Both the genes in question need to be revealed as well as the cellular targets that could be utilized for therapy. For example, skin or muscle cells could be targeted for systemic diseases as opposed to liver cells. Regardless, the use of gene therapy to further understand disease pathophysiology could lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to disease remission. Animal Models of Disease As a correlate to the study of disease pathogenesis in the context of gene therapy, animal models of human disease provide the principles of disease pathogenesis (see Chapter 3). For gene therapy, the specific cells to be targeted for therapy as well as the number of cells needed for therapy can be elucidated.

Because the risk of developing neuropathic pain increases with age cheap luvox 50 mg with visa, it may provide an alternative therapy for the elderly patients [20] discount 100 mg luvox mastercard. Boulton order luvox 100mg with visa, “Management of diabetic peripheral neuropa- Several studies on the possible mechanisms of ingredients thy,” Clinical Diabetes,vol. Vincent,“Teprevalence,impact,and mechanism of endoneurial hypoxia resulting from arteriove- multifactorial pathogenesis of diabetic peripheral neuropathy,” Advanced Studies in Medicine,vol. Yang, “Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in Taiwan,” Taiwan induced diabetes in rats [28, 29]. Du, “Diabetes is an infammatory disease: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group evidence from traditional Chinese medicines,” Diabetes, Obesity studies,” Clinical Terapeutics,vol. Peltier, “Painful diabetic neuropathy: a human diseases,” in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Scientifc management-centered review,” Clinical Diabetes,vol. Hider, “Relevant activities of research,” American Journal of Chinese Medicine,vol. Man-Yuen Sze, Alzheimer’s disease,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, “Lessons learnt from evidence-based approach of using chinese vol. Liang, “Survey of current studies of efects of traditional Chinese medicine on nerve growth factor and diabeticperipheralneuropathy,”ZhongguoZhongyaoZazhi,vol. Liu, “Topical herbal medicine for treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials,” Forschende Komple- mentarmedizin, vol. Wasner, “Neuropathic pain: diagno- sis, pathophysiological mechanisms, and treatment,” Te Lancet Neurology, vol. Coppini,“Tepathogenesis and management of painful diabetic neuropathy: a review,” Diabetic Medicine, vol. El Rabey 1 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Introduction production and impaired antioxidant defense mechanisms leading to increased oxidative stress. Tis progression is characterized found in the cytoplasm of the normal nonactivated cells by declining glomerular fltration rate and kidney structural binding to its inhibitor (I- B). Once Hyperglycemiaisamajorcausefortheincreasedglyca- in the nucleus, it stimulates the transcription of its controlled tion of proteins and lipids that, in turn, enhances the gen- genes. Mice with blood glucose with optimal glycemic control, the abnormal lipid profle lower than 250 mg/dL were excluded from the experiment. In diabetes mellitus, Miceofallgroupswerehousedincagesandreceivednormal hyperlipidemia is considered an independent and major diet and tap water ad libitum in a constant environment determinant of progression of renal disease [10]. Bodyweights mainly composed of dimers, oligomers, and polymers of andbloodglucoselevelsweremeasuredregularly. Teir end of the experiment (12 weeks afer induction of diabetes), degree of polymerization is generally distributed between 2 animals were sacrifced using ether anaesthesia. Te third meability, and fragility and to afect enzyme systems includ- part was used for preparation of the nuclear and cytoplasmic ing phospholipase A2, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase [14]. All in apoE−/mice, an animal model previously demonstrated analyses were performed in accordance with the manuals to have a series of pathological conditions including dyslipi- provided by the manufacturer. Hyperlipidemia per se is asso- ciated with the development of early renal lesions in apoE−/mice [17]. Urine samples were col- lected by placing the mice in individual metabolic cages 2. Cytoplasmic and nuclear frac- for 24 h before diabetes mellitus had been induced and tions of the mice kidneys were separated as described [7]. All analyses were performed in accordance with the 15 minutes, mixed again, and centrifuged at 13000 rpm. Te supernatant contained the cytoplasmic extract ∘ and was transferred to a fresh tube and kept at –80 C. Measurement of Urinary and Renal 8-Hydroxy-2 -deoxy- ∘ 4 C, 25% glycerol, 420 mM NaCl, 1. Afer washing 5 times, the immunoreactive proteins quantitative enzyme immunoassay technique. Renal tissues were col- lected afer animal sacrifce, fxed in 10% formalin, processed 2. Te urinary 8-isoprostane obtained as described in the Materials and Methods section. Tus, our data suggest that part of the development of diabetic complications [36]. Te obtained data were in line with those of previous studies [5, 7, 9, 15, 28, 30, 31, 37, 38]. Umegaki, “Grape seed extract pre- dietary adjunct for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and vents H2O2-induced chromosomal damage in human lym- its complications.

A study on the hypotensive action of leaves and root bark of Millingtonia hortensis Linn order luvox 50mg mastercard. The hypotensive action of aqueous extract of leaves and that of root bark of Millingtonia hortensis Linn luvox 100mg online. The hypotensive effect of extracts was studied on adult normal anaesthetized dogs of either sex discount 100mg luvox with visa. The blood pressure of the dog was recorded on smoked drum of Kymograph and measurements were obtained from mercury manometer. Both of the extracts suppressed the myocardial contraction in isolated rabbit heart. The extracts were also found to have diuretic action with a significant potassium loss in urine. Phytochemical analysis showed that both extracts have glycosides, saponins, tanninoids, carbohydrates and steroids. Most of the people living in various parts of Myanmar, especially in Shan State, use Cydonia cathayensis Hemsl. However, it has never been subjected to scientifically controlled trial in human volunteers. Thus, a randomized two way cross over study was conducted on twenty apparently healthy subjects of both sexes and ages between 25-55 years. Subjects were randomly divided into two groups and allopurinol 100mg three times a day (standard hypouricaemic drug) was administered to the first group for 14 days. It was followed successively by the washout period of 7 days and csOfapmfum;oD; (5gm of dried fruits was mixed with 150ml of water, over night and watery mixture (excluding dry fruits) was administered daily for 14 days. For the second group, csOfapmfum;oD; was administered in the first 14 days and after a washout period of 7 days, it was followed by allopurinol for 14days. Blood samples were collected on Day0, Day14, Day21 and Day 35 to determine the serum uric acid level before and after administration of drugs. Serum uric acid level of first group before and after administration of allopurinol was 4. Serum uric acid level of first group before and after administration of csOfapmfum;oD; was 4. Thus it seems that csOfapmfum;oD; had no hypouricaemic action and the mechanism of action for relief of aches and pains may be due to other actions of csOfapmfum;oD;. Study on the larvicidal activity and chemical constituents of Calotropis procera R. The main aim of this work is to develop environmentally safe, biodegradable, low cost, indigenous methods for vector control, which can be used with minimum care by individual and communicaties in specific situations. However, the larvicidal activities of this compound were much lower than that of synthetic larvicide (Deltamethrin). C and D could be considered as natural larvicidal agent and used as alternatives for conventional control that is environmentally safe and biodegradable. Water extract of Tagetes errecta show on lethality of the mice up to 7 days with a maximum giving dose level of 7g/kg indicating it has no harmful effects and hoped to be safety used as larvicide. Study on the organic chemical constituents & antibacterial activity of Azadirachta indica A. This thesis described about the investigation of phytoconstituents from two selected Myanmar medicinal plants and their pharmacological effects. Rotundine isolated from Taung-kya was also determined its analgesic activity in vivo compared with that of standard morphine by using tail clip method. Analgesic effect was measured by determining tail-pinch pressure needed to elicit a withdrawal response. As a result, the time onset of pain response of post treatment with rotundine was significant delayed (p<0. Comparative effect of pain response on pre and post treatment showed significant delayed the onset of pain response (p<0. Study on the potential use of preparation of Artemisia annua plants and its extracts on malaria infections. The global problem of multi-drug resistance in falciparum malaria is serious and prompt effective treatment of critically ill patients is mandatory. Nowadays, Qinghaosu, the active antimalarial principle of the Chinese herb Qinghao (Artemisia annua L. Hence, the antimalarial activity of crude plant materials such as leaves, stems, leaves together with stems and the extracts of A. Petroleum ether was considered to be the solvent of choice for preparing the extracts. However, further research on therapeutic treatment regimen, dosage and drug toxicity should be continued. Study on the screening of some biological activities and isolation of some bioactive compounds from Cissus quadranglularis Linn. The present research deals with the screening of some biological activities of Cissus quardrangularis Linn.

This means the first steps toward the more specialised courses like medical psychology and behavioural medicine proven luvox 100 mg, as well as electives to be introduced in the third and fourth academic years buy luvox 100 mg with mastercard. The Department of Behavioural Sciences will adhere to the requirements of the Rules and Regulations for English Program Students luvox 100 mg without prescription. Requirements Aims: Introducing and recognizing fundamental characteristics of human communication and developing basic knowledge, skills and attitudes which are most important in doctor patient relationship. This course serves as a basis for the continuation of third year studies of more specific communicational knowledge needs for healing and curing in the field of medical practice. Framework and process of learning: In form of small-group learning discussions, role-plays, observational tasks will be introduced by which students can be active participants in learning by acquiring not only theoretical issues. Because teachers guide semi-structured seminars, student will be facilitated to give feedback, express opinions and propose available topics, which could build into to learning process. During first seminars individual learning objectives can be elaborated together with teacher and classmates and can be achieved alongside the main objectives of the whole group. Standpoints of the observational task of communication class: For the purpose of developing so called observational skills, a special task will be introduced. Students will be requested to watch systematically human behaviours at different places where one can perceive various forms of formal and informal communication (two weeks will be given for completing observations instead of attending seminars during this period. Sensitivity toward relating phenomena can be enhanced by these observational tasks. Several places of health case system, like wards, surgeries for outpatients, waiting rooms or other places like libraries, the campus where many human interactions can be observed are available. Students will be asked to prepare a presentation and deliver it in front of the group. The presentation will be given for the whole group and classmates will give feedback using structured criteria-system (see formative Assessment table on the back of the sheet. Presentation skills, proper use of nonverbal communicational channels can be assessed by which improvement of personal communicational skills can be facilitated. After completed observational task the basic verbal communicational skills will be practiced using role-plays (or simulated patients- at given groups). Main forms of possible doctor-patient conversations can be discussed, as history taking, problem-, supportive-, and bad-new-conversations. Oral Presentation: Formative Assessment Skills and Qualities Content/Text Answers the question/deals effectively with the task. Handling Questions Responding engaging others in discussion, managing the audience (e. Atomic and molecule spectra, absorption Seminar: Material related to lectures 9 and 10. Fluorescence spectroscopy, applications of Practical: Practicals in rotation system. Thermodynamic probability, Brownian motion, Optics, optical microscopy, electron microscopy. Diffusion at the molecular level, statistical Seminar: Material related to lectures 3 and 4. Features of nuclear radiation and its interaction 10th week: with absorbing material. Resting potential, action potential, and Radiation biophysics: target theory, direct and indirect electrical excitability. Biophysics of respiration Seminar: Material related to lectures 17 and 18 Seminar: Material related to lectures 23 and 24. Modern microscopic techniques, near field, Seminar: Material related to lectures 19 and 20. Requirements Aim of the course: To provide the necessary theoretical and practical background for the understanding the physical principles applied in biology and medicine, and for the description of the physical processes in living organisms. To introduce the biophysical techniques in order to (1) understand the pathomechanism of diseases (2) develop of novel therapeutic approaches (3) develop of novel diagnostic tools: e. Short description of the course: Students will be introduced to the quantitative description of the physical basis of selected topics in biology and medicine. All material covered in lectures is an integral part of the subject and therefore included in the self-control tests and the final exam. Some new concepts and ideas are discussed in the lectures only and are not present in the textbook. Seminars Attendance to seminars is compulsory, however, a student may miss maximum 7 (seven) seminars. In the seminars, students are encouraged to ask questions related to the topic of the lectures discussed (see timetable of lectures and seminars). Besides, students may prepare short presentations (7-15 minutes) about the topic of the seminars (max. The topic list for short presentations is posted to the web page of the Department. Students obtaining less than 3 points for the presentation may prepare an additional one (in the student’s own group) given that spots are still available.

Some ornithologists have captured new spe- ents develop an ethic “to correct the imbalances in cies to study them in the laboratory and later re- nature” that we have created? Modern Relationships The common thread for recreational use of birds Man and Birds today purchase luvox 100 mg fast delivery, which includes hunting discount 50mg luvox, falconry purchase 100mg luvox amex, watching and photographing activities, feeding, pet ownership, rehabilitation and aviculture, is the individual’s de- sire to contact nature. People seek to contact their Humans have related to birds primarily as consum- roots and appreciate the oneness of life around them. The recreational uses of birds can enhance conservation when they increase that In Medieval times, falcons were symbols of authority understanding. In the 18th greatest value when they do not impact on free-rang- and 19th centuries as European cities grew, wealthy ing bird populations. They collected live birds, espe- Bird watching, photographing and feeding have cially waterfowl, and established private mini-zoo- minimal effects on bird populations and benefit both logical gardens. Colonialism exposed wealthy Europeans to birds Approximately 34% of Americans either photograph from other continents, and large outdoor aviaries birds or watch birds. Falconers have been successful in breeding and numbers, migratory patterns and other biologi- and reintroducing falcons. Aviculture Aviculturists support avian conservation by using A 1989 survey of non-hunting recreational activities birds already in captivity for their breeding programs revealed that 46% of Americans feed birds either in to decrease the need for importation. Seasonal group bird counts and the knowledge they gain from captive breeding ef- surveys provide demographic data regarding winter- forts is used by field biologists to more effectively ing species. Avian vet- erinarians can bridge the gap between aviculturists, Rehabilitation biologists and conservationists by encouraging the Because of their interest in birds, avian veterinari- sharing of knowledge and experience. Assisting injured wildlife offers an opportunity The success of the Peregrine Falcon, California Con- for the veterinarian to expand the public’s under- dor and Whooping Crane breeding programs is due, standing of avian conservation. Many native birds in part, to the commitment of aviculturists to con- are protected by federal and state laws and permits ducting in-depth studies of a single species. This are required for veterinary care and even short-term focus saves time and money and prevents the dilu- possession of these species. Developing a relationship tion of energies that often occurs with aviculture with a qualified rehabilitator could be helpful to both programs that involve a variety of different species. The care of certain native species, ie, endangered or threatened Some areas of the United States seem to be better species, should be undertaken only by veterinarians suited for the breeding of some species. The concept experienced in the care of these birds and with suit- of focusing avicultural efforts on bird species that able facilities. Wildlife rehabilitation centers are al- breed well in a certain geographic region needs to be ways in need of volunteers. Companion Birds Hunting The recreational use of birds as pets has had a pro- Hunting as a recreational use of birds consists of two found and permanent effect on the population of categories: hunting free-ranging wildlife and hunt- many free-ranging bird species. In terms of conservation ethics, perspective avian veterinarians should encourage hunting stocked wildlife is similar to the consump- clients to continue to buy domestically raised or tive use of birds for food. Contemporary hunting of ranched birds, thereby supporting captive breeding free-ranging birds initially was useful as a conserva- and sustained harvesting, and thus relieving pres- tion management tool. Hunting has conservation value physical and emotional needs of their companion when the hunter appreciates both his prey and the birds, thereby ensuring the health and welfare of the environment of the animal. With the use of high-tech birds and increasing the involvement of the owners equipment, the hunter has become more isolated with their bird. The goal is to change the nature of from his prey; consequently, the experience provides the relationship from one of consumptive ownership less conservation value. Younger animals tend to have an in- Conservation is a science as well as a philosophy. Will domestication Avian populations, especially psittacines, have expe- and the favoring of neotenic traits also lead to an rienced recent dramatic declines. Are more diseases being found in Psittacidae species that are seriously threatened or companion birds than in their free-ranging counter- at risk of extinction, most are a result of habitat loss parts because companion birds are more easily stud- and the pet trade. Figure 1 summarizes the current approaches to par- 14 Infection is difficult to assess in free-ranging birds. Many of these methods are The relationship between parasite and host is care- equally valuable to other species. What effect will domestica- One of the key approaches to conservation of tion have on this relationship? Some species mon, yet flocks of these birds are established only in exist today only in captivity. There are many questions regarding captive breed- Research on White-naped Crane eggs has shown that ing. Are the progeny of these birds releasable in their the microclimate surrounding these large eggs is native habitat or non-native habitats?