N. Makas. Vassar College.

Stimuli below the absolute threshold can still have at least some influence on us discount 25 mg indocin overnight delivery, even though we cannot consciously detect them buy indocin 25 mg low cost. But whether the presentation of subliminal stimuli can influence the products that we buy has been a more controversial topic in [5] psychology order 75mg indocin amex. To be sure they paid attention to the display, the students were asked to note whether the strings contained a small b. However, immediately before each of the letter strings, the researchers presented either the name of a drink that is popular in Holland (Lipton Ice) or a control string containing the same letters as Lipton Ice (NpeicTol). These words were presented so quickly (for only about one fiftieth of a second) that the participants could not see them. Then the students were asked to indicate their intention to drink Lipton Ice by answering questions such as “If you would sit on a terrace now, how likely is it that you would order Lipton Ice,‖ and also to indicate how thirsty they were at the time. The researchers found that the students who had been exposed to the “Lipton Ice‖ words (and particularly those who indicated that they were already thirsty) were significantly more likely to say that they would drink Lipton Ice than were those who had been exposed to the control words. If it were effective, procedures such as this (we can call the technique “subliminal advertising‖ because it advertises a product outside awareness) would have some major advantages for advertisers, because it would allow them to promote their products without directly interrupting the consumers’ activity and without the consumers‘ knowing they are being persuaded. People cannot counterargue with, or attempt to avoid being influenced by, messages received outside awareness. Due to fears that people may be influenced without their knowing, subliminal advertising has been legally banned in many countries, including Australia, Great Britain, and the United States. Although it has been proven to work in some research, subliminal advertising’s effectiveness is [6] still uncertain. Charles Trappey (1996) conducted a meta-analysis in which he combined 23 Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. The results of his meta-analysis showed that subliminal advertising had a negligible [7] effect on consumer choice. Taken together then, the evidence for the effectiveness of subliminal advertising is weak, and its effects may be limited to only some people and in only some conditions. You probably don’t have to worry too much about being subliminally persuaded in your everyday life, even if subliminal ads are allowed in your country. But even if subliminal advertising is not all that effective itself, there are plenty of other indirect advertising techniques that are used and that do work. For instance, many ads for automobiles and alcoholic beverages are subtly sexualized, which encourages the consumer to indirectly (even if not subliminally) associate these products with sexuality. And there is the ever more frequent “product placement‖ techniques, where images of brands (cars, sodas, electronics, and so forth) are placed on websites and in popular [8] television shows and movies. Harris, Bargh, & Brownell (2009) found that being exposed to food advertising on television significantly increased child and adult snacking behaviors, again suggesting that the effects of perceived images, even if presented above the absolute threshold, may nevertheless be very subtle. Another example of processing that occurs outside our awareness is seen when certain areas of the visual cortex are damaged, causing blindsight, a condition in which people are unable to consciously report on visual stimuli but nevertheless are able to accurately answer questions about what they are seeing. When people with blindsight are asked directly what stimuli look like, or to determine whether these stimuli are present at all, they cannot do so at better than chance levels. However, when they are asked more indirect questions, they are able to give correct answers. For example, people with blindsight are able to correctly determine an object’s location and direction of movement, as well as identify [9] simple geometrical forms and patterns (Weiskrantz, 1997). Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing the incoming information in order that we can understand it and react accordingly. Signal detection analysis is used to differentiate sensitivity from response biases. According to Weber’s law, the just noticeable difference increases in proportion to the total intensity of the stimulus. The effectiveness of subliminal advertising, however, has not been shown to be of large magnitude. The accidental shooting of one’s own soldiers (friendly fire) frequently occurs in wars. Based on what you have learned about sensation, perception, and psychophysics, why do you think soldiers might mistakenly fire on their own soldiers? If we pick up two letters, one that weighs 1 ounce and one that weighs 2 ounces, we can notice the difference. But if we pick up two packages, one that weighs 3 pounds 1 ounce and one that weighs 3 pounds 2 ounces, we can’t tell the difference. Summarize how the eye and the visual cortex work together to sense and perceive the visual stimuli in the environment, including processing colors, shape, depth, and motion. Whereas other animals rely primarily on hearing, smell, or touch to understand the world around them, human beings rely in large part on vision. A large part of our cerebral cortex is devoted to seeing, and we have substantial visual skills.

This is the theory of acupuncture points that are stimulated usually by the superficial insertion of 136 | Traditional medicine needles into the skin buy indocin 50 mg cheap. Other methods of stimulation include the application of pressure and the passing of a weak electrical current (see below) indocin 25 mg low cost. A further 1000 extra points and special use points may also be identi- fied on the hands discount indocin 25mg with amex, ears and scalp. It is not known how these points were discov- ered – probably it was by observation over hundreds if not thousands of years – nor is it known exactly how many points were first identified. Acupoints cannot be identified by their appearance and no consistent features of their anatomy have been found that distinguish them from other tissues. Practice of acupuncture There is archaeological evidence that shows that the earliest acupuncture needles date back to the Stone Age, when instruments called bian were thought to have been used in China. Needles were subsequently made of many different metals: gold, silver, copper, etc. Modern acupuncturists use solid sterile disposable needles of narrow bore, about 3 cm long (although longer needles may be used at different sites). As many as 15–20 needles may be inserted superficially at the appro- priate point(s). The practitioner then gently introduces the needles a little more deeply into the muscle, rotating them between finger and thumb. Qi and blood flow throughout the meridians and this is where manipulation of the needle is critical in properly moving this flow. The arrival of qi called deqi is signified by a dull ache or tingling sensation and slight inflammation. Some practitioners may use electrical stimulation, connecting the needles to a small piece of equipment powered by batteries. Needles are left in place for up to 20 min: the patient is invited to lie back and relax. Occasionally a needle may be left in place for several days, normally situated in the ear; these so-called indwelling needles should not be used in patients with heart valve disease or who are immunocompromised. Acupuncture point selection may vary at each treatment, depending on the patient’s response. Positive trials have been criticised because of inadequate blinding, and negative trials because the intervention was not administered by properly trained practitioners or control interventions may have had analgesic effects. The panel said that acupuncture was ‘probably’ also effective in the control of nausea in early pregnancy. The British Medical Association reached a similar conclusion in their report on acupuncture. Even if they can, there is evidence that acupuncture at non-classic points, the so-called trigger points, may have analgesic effects. When the needle was ‘inserted into the skin’ participants saw and felt the needle penetration. Both sham and genuine needles were held in place with a plastic ring and surgical tape so the procedure looked identical. After the run-in period, the acupuncturists followed identical protocols for administering real or continued sham acupuncture. Participants in the pill group were instructed to take one capsule each evening to minimise daytime drowsiness. The placebo capsule contained cornstarch, and the amitripty- line capsule contained cornstarch plus 25 mg amitriptyline. The primary outcome was self-reported intensity of pain in the most severely affected arm during the preceding week measured on a 10-point numerical rating scale ranging from no pain (1) to the most severe pain imaginable (10). The sham device had greater effects than the placebo pill on self-reported pain and severity of symptoms over the entire course of treatment, but not during the 2-week placebo run-in. It was concluded that placebo effects seem to depend on the behaviours embedded in medical rituals. Subsequently Traditional Chinese medicine | 139 they were asked to rate how much their clinical condition had improved or worsened over a specified period of time. Safety A study that investigated the incidence and severity of acupuncture reactions has been carried out in Japan. The most common systemic reactions were tiredness and drowsiness (11%), aggravation of symptoms (2. The authors concluded that there were some adverse reactions associated with acupuncture, but that they were generally transient and mild. It has been suggested that a fall in blood sugar could be involved46 and this might be a problem for patients with diabetes using insulin or oral hyperglycaemic drugs. Advice from a pharmacist on the rescheduling of administration would be appropriate. The adverse effects that may be attributed to acupuncture have also been catalogued. Infection during needling Hepatitis Re-using needles with inadequate sterilisation has been the source of hepa- titis in a number of patients, although the literature refers mainly, but not exclusively, to the 1980s and earlier.

Te unifed command is composed of agency representatives who have full authority to make policy decisions for their respective agencies cheap 25 mg indocin mastercard. Tere is an agreement made before the unifed command is activated that it will work as a democratic body purchase indocin 25 mg with visa, with each agency repre- sented committed to follow the decisions of the entire group order indocin 25mg without prescription. Although deciding on a victim and missing person numbering system may seem uncomplicated, in the past there have been almost as many diferent number- ing systems as operations done. With the use of computers so prevalent, numbering systems need only be tailored for estimated numbers and some obvious diferentiation between antemortem and postmortem records. Always begin the antemortem or postmortem records with a variation of the number 1. For purposes of electronic database storage and order, zeros can be added before the 1 to approximate the total number of records expected. For example, if there are three hundred expected fatalities, the frst number would be 001. Tis would not only accommodate the 300 expected fatalities, but also could be used if the incident increased up to 999 victims. Antemortem records can easily be numbered in the same way, with the addition of A to appear before the number to make an obvious dif- ference between antemortem (A001) and postmortem (P001). As far as using the numbering system to show recovery areas, operation names, or any other bits of information, digital databases replace this function with record-specifc data cells that can be ordered or searched as necessary. If numbering systems are changed for any reason in the middle of an operation, many problems will dental identifcation in multiple Fatality incidents 253 ensue. Some computer systems use the numbering system for unique identi- fcation within a particular sofware application, and in addition might use the number to connect or bridge to another sofware program to accomplish a diferent task. Tese types of systems do not allow quick and easy updates of initial numbering systems. In fact, it could require many hours of work and coordination to establish a new numbering system. Terefore, establish the exact numbering system before operations begin and stick with it. Forensic anthropologists who have a doctorate degree and are board certifed by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology should be used if available. Te dental section is responsible for antemortem and postmortem dental records, the dental postmortem examination, and the comparison of dental records for identifcation. Tis section is also charged with obtaining latent prints from missing persons’ premises that may lead to identifcation of missing persons with no antemortem fngerprint records. Tis section is stafed with experienced fngerprint experts from local, state, or federal agencies. Te personal efects section is usually the frst physical station in the morgue area. Personal efects collects those items associated with each victim, docu- ments and stores those items, and prepares them for return to the families of the victims. Tis section usually confrms proper numbering of victims and begins the sequential processing of the morgue operation. Te forensic pathology section is usually headed by the medical examiner in charge of the morgue. Te radiology section provides medical radiographic docu- mentation for each unidentifed victim. Tey may then compare antemortem radiographs from missing persons to those of unknown victims for identif- cation. Other sections may be added or any of the sections listed above can be modifed, expanded, combined, or deleted to ft the needs of the operation. Te morgue sections are set up in such a manner as to allow easy fow of the unidentifed victims from station to station, along with all pertinent records. A tracker is assigned to stay with each individual as he or she moves from beginning to end through the morgue. Te tracker ensures that all 254 Forensic dentistry records stay with the proper individual and that all sections sign of on the activity done at each station. Te fow of the morgue also requires the movement of victims from the storage area to the morgue facility. It also allows the storage team more choices in where to position their facility for the easiest and most secure transport of the uniden- tifed bodies to and from the morgue. Computerized databases are now com- monly used to document each truck’s contents, maintenance records, fueling, temperatures, and release records. Te entity in charge of the morgue will usu- ally verify identifcation and release with the issuance of a death certifcate.

Symptoms of cocaine withdrawal include dysphoric mood; fatigue; vivid buy 50mg indocin free shipping, unpleasant dreams; insomnia or hypersomnia; increased appetite; psychomotor retardation or agitation purchase indocin 50 mg on line. The cognitive and perceptual impairment may last for up to 12 hours discount 50 mg indocin free shipping, so use is generally episodic, because the individual must organize time during the daily schedule for its use. Dependence is rare, and most people are able to resume their previous lifestyle, following a period of hallucinogen use, without much difficulty. These episodes consist of visual or auditory misperceptions usually lasting only a few seconds but sometimes lasting up to several hours. Hallucinogens are highly unpredictable in the effects they may induce each time they are used. Symptoms include marked anxiety or depression, ideas of reference, fear of losing one’s mind, paranoid ideation, and impaired judgment. Other symptoms include subjective intensification of percep- tions, depersonalization, derealization, illusions, hallucina- tions, and synesthesias. Effects are induced by inhaling the vapors of volatile sub- stances through the nose or mouth. Examples of substances include glue, gasoline, paint, paint thinners, various cleaning chemicals, and typewriter correc- tion fluid. Use of inhalants often begins in childhood, and considerable family dysfunction is characteristic. Tolerance has been reported among individuals with heavy use, but a withdrawal syndrome from these substances has not been well documented. Symptoms of intoxication develop during, or shortly after, use of, or exposure to, volatile inhalants. Symptoms of inhalant intoxication include belligerence, assaultiveness, apathy, impaired judgment, and impaired social or occupational functioning. The effects of nicotine are induced through inhaling the smoke of cigarettes, cigars, or pipe tobacco and orally through the use of snuff or chewing tobacco. Nicotine is commonly used to relieve or to avoid withdrawal symptoms that occur when the individual has been in a situ- ation where use is restricted. Continued use despite knowledge of medical problems related to smoking is a particularly important health problem. Symptoms of withdrawal develop within 24 hours after abrupt cessation of (or reduction in) prolonged nicotine use. Symptoms of nicotine withdrawal include dysphoric or depressed mood, insomnia, irritability, frustration, anger, anxiety, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, decreased heart rate, and increased appetite. Various forms are taken orally, intravenously, by nasal inha- lation, and by smoking. Dependence occurs after recreational use of the substance “on the street” or after prescribed use of the substance for relief of pain or cough. Once abuse or dependence is established, substance procure- ment often comes to dominate the person’s life. Cessation or decreased consumption results in a “craving” for the substance and produces a specific syndrome of withdrawal. Symptoms of opioid intoxication include euphoria (initially) followed by apathy, dysphoria, psychomotor agitation or retardation, impaired judgment, and impaired social or occupational functioning. Symptoms of opioid withdrawal occur after cessation of (or reduction in) heavy and prolonged opioid use. Symptoms of withdrawal can also occur after administration of an opioid antagonist after a period of opioid use. Symptoms of opioid withdrawal can occur within minutes to several days following use (or antagonist), and include dysphoric mood, nausea or vomiting, muscle aches, lacrima- tion or rhinorrhea, pupillary dilation, piloerection, sweating, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, yawning, fever, and insomnia. Use can be on a chronic daily basis but more often is taken episodically in binges that can last several days. Dependence can occur following recreational use of the substance “on the street” or after prescribed use of the substance for relief of anxiety or insomnia. Once dependence develops, there is evidence of strong substance-seeking behaviors (obtaining prescriptions from several physicians or resorting to illegal sources to maintain adequate supplies of the substance). Abrupt cessation of these substances can result in life- threatening withdrawal symptoms. Symptoms of intoxication develop during or shortly after intake of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. Symptoms of intoxication include inappropriate sexual or aggressive behavior, mood lability, impaired judgment, and impaired social or occupational functioning. Withdrawal symptoms occur after cessation of (or reduc- tion in) heavy and prolonged use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. Symptoms of withdrawal occur within several hours to a few days after abrupt cessation or reduction in use of the drug.