By T. Vak. Lake Superior State University.

It is an inherited disorder that the defect may be in the galactokinase buy 20mg escitalopram with mastercard, uridlyl transferase or 4-epimerase escitalopram 10mg. The product accumulates in lense and leads to accumulation of water by osmotic pull cheap escitalopram 5 mg with mastercard. Glycogen metabolism Introduction Glycogen is the major storage form of carbohydrate in animals. It is mainly stored in liver and muscles and is mobilized as glucose whenever body tissues require. Shortening of chains Golycogen phosphorylase cleaves the α-1, 4 glycosidic bonds between the glucose residues at the non reducing ends of the glycogen by simple phosphorolysis. The resulting structure is called a limit dextrin and phosphorylase cannot degrade it any further. Removal of Branches A debranching enzyme also called Glucantransferase which contains two activities, Glucantransferase and Glucosidase. The transfer activity removes the terminal 3 glucose residues of one branch and attaches them to a free C4 end of the second branch. The glucose in α-(1,6) linkage at the branch is removed by the action of Glucosidase as free glucose. Lysosomal Degradation of Glycogen A small amount of glycogen is continuously degraded by the lysosomal enzyme α-(1, 4) glycosidase (acid maltase). The α-1,6 branches in glucose are produced by amylo-(1,4-1,6) transglycosylase,also termed as branching enzyme. This enzyme transfers a terminal fragment of 6 to 7 glucose residues(from a polymer of atleast 11 glucose residues long) to an internal glucose residue at the C-6 hydroxyl position. Glycogenesis Glycogen storage diseases These are a group of genetic diseases that result from a defect in an enzyme required for either glycogen synthesis or degradation. They result in either formation of glycogen that has an abnormal structure or the accumulation of excessive amounts of normal glycogen in specific tissues, A particular enzyme may be defective in a single tissue such as the liver or the defect may be more generalized, affecting muscle, kidney, intestine and myocardium. The severity of the diseases may range from fatal in infancy to mild disorders that are not life threatening some of the more prevalent glycogen storage diseases are the following. To provide the cell with ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) for the synthesis of the nucleotides and nucleic acids. The 3 carbon sugar generated is glyceraldehyde-3-phsphate which can be shunted to glycolysis and oxidized to pyruvate. Alternatively, it can be utilized by the gluconeogenic enzymes to generate more 6 carbon sugars (fructose-6-phosphate or glucose-6-phosphate). Although this bond plays a very important role in protein structure and function, inappropriately introduced disulfides can be detrimental. Oxidative stress also generates peroxides that in turn can be reduced by glutathione to generate water and an alcohol. Regeneration of reduced glutathione is carried out by the enzyme, glutathione reductase. Several deficiencies in the level of activity (not function) of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase have been observed to be associated with resistance to the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, among individuals of Mediterranean and African descent. The basis for this resistance is the weakening of the red cell membrane (the erythrocyte is the host cell for the parasite) such that it cannot sustain the parasitic life cycle long enough for productive growth. Coris Cycle or Lactic Acid Cycle In an actively contracting muscle, only about 8% of the pyruvate is utilized by the citric acid cycle and the remaining is, therefore, reduced to lactate. The lactic acid thus generated should not be allowed to accumulate in the muscle tissues. The muscle cramps, often associated with strenuous muscular exercise are thought to be due to lactate accumulation. It is then taken up through gluconeogenesis pathway and becomes glucose, which can enter into blood and then taken to muscle. Significance of the cycle: Muscle cannot form glucose by gluconeogenesis process because glucose 6 phosphatase is absent. Unlike Liver, muscle cannot supply Glucose to other organs inspite of having Glycogen. Gluconeogenesis Gluconoegenesis is the biosynthesis of new glucose from non carbohydrate substrates. In the absence of dietary intake of carbohydrate liver glycogen can meet these needs for only 10 to 18 hours During prolonged fast hepatic glycogen stores are depleted and glucose is formed from precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and keto acids. Approximately 90% of gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver whereas kidneys provide 10 % of newly synthesized glucose molecules, The kidneys thus play a minor role except during prolonged starvation when they become major glucose producing organs. Reactions Unique to Gluconeogenesis Seven of the reactions of glycolysis are reversible and are used in the synthesis of glucose from lactate or pyruvate. However three of the reactions are irreversible and must be bypassed by four alternate reactions that energetically favor the synthesis of glucose.

An understanding of modes of transmission can allow individuals to reduce their risk of contracting infection generic 5 mg escitalopram. Statement for the World Conference of obstacles to healthy development purchase 20mg escitalopram free shipping, World Health Ministers Responsible for Youth order 10 mg escitalopram fast delivery, Lisbon, http:// Organization report on infectious diseases, http:// www/unaids. Weekly Epidemiological Record, Hepatitis C - Global World Health Organization (1998). Aims of care: promote optimal respiratory function, alleviate cough, maintain adequate oxygenation. Possible interventions • Assess respiratory function and vital signs – findings should be recorded as a baseline assessment and 4 hourly thereafter. Changes in bowel habits Symptoms: diarrhoea related to opportunistic infection Possible causes: Cryptosporidosis, Kaposi’s sarcoma in G. The patient’s weight should be taken daily and an accurate record of fluid intake and output maintained. Gently pat the skin dry with a soft cloth or towel rather than wiping it to prevent fragile skin from tearing. Aims of care: prevent dehydration, alleviate distress, restore normal dietary habits. The patient’s weight should be recorded daily and an accurate record of fluid intake and output should be maintained. If the patient is very weak or unconscious it may be necessary for the nurse to provide oral care using gauze soaked in mouthwash or fresh water, and using the index finger, gently cleanse the mouth, applying petroleum jelly to lips to prevent cracking. Possible interventions • Assessment of vital signs and body temperature should be recorded 4 hourly. Aims of care: Alleviate pain Possible Interventions • Assess the location, type, intensity and persistence of the pain. Aims of care: minimise the effects of neurological dysfunction, maintain a safe environment. Possible Interventions • Assess baseline mental status, including the patient’s ability to understand. Speak in a calm and relaxed manner, give one instruction at a time, and repeat information as necessary. Aims of care: keep the patient well nourished, prevent further weight loss, attain normal body weight Possible interventions • Assess previous dietary patterns including food likes and dislikes and any known allergies. Aims of care: establish a trusting/therapeutic relationship, improve motivation and self esteem, reduce the risk of self harm. Aims of care: establish a relationship in which the patient feels able to discuss their concerns, reduce/alleviate anxiety. Possible interventions • Set time aside to spend with the patient and encourage them to express their worry by asking open-ended questions. Weakness and fatigue Possible causes: Weakness and fatigue are common during acute and in chronic end-stage liver disease. Aims of care: to ensure personal hygiene needs are met, to ensure patient comfort, to ensure adequate rest is achieved, to promote self care when appropriate. Possible interventions • Assist the patient with washing or bathing according to their needs and wishes • Assist the patient with toileting as the patient requires • Assist the patient in achieving a comfortable position to promote rest and sleep, whilst preventing risk of pressure sore development • Promote self care and independence when appropriate, assessing and reviewing the patients needs continuously. Aims of care: Ensure adequate intake of nutritional needs Possible interventions • Patients with nausea and vomiting may require intravenous fluids of glucose and saline. This may be necessary due to the increased protein catabolism that occurs with acute liver disease and it can promote liver tissue repair. Jaundice Impaired liver function inhibits the body’s ability to excrete bile salts normally. Excess bile salts are excreted and deposited in the skin resulting in jaundice and generalized itching. Possible interventions • Administer antipruritics as prescribed (often not very effective). Possible complications due to cirrhosis Ascities Damage to liver cells can cause disturbance in the bodies excretory system, causing fluid to accumulate in the abdominal cavity. Possible interventions • Observe all patients with hepatitis B for possible accumulation of fluid in the abdomen. This may progress in terminal illness to incontinence of urine and faeces and coma. Possible Interventions • Observe the patient for early signs of altered mental functioning and report any changes promptly. Risk of haemorrhage The liver may be unable to metabolise Vitamin K, in order to produce prothrombin (clotting factor), therefore the patient is potentially at risk of haemorrhage. Aims of care: to minimize risk of hæmorrhage Possible interventions • Observe for symptoms of anxiety, epigastric fullness, restlessness and weakness, which may indicate bleeding.