By H. Roy. Olivet Nazarene University. 2018.

Biocontrol Sci Technol 10:459 465 Mietkiewski R order lincocin 500 mg visa, Baazy S lincocin 500mg without prescription, Tkaczuk C (2003) Mikozy szpecieli (Acari: Eriophyoidea) wystepujacych na trawach order lincocin 500 mg with amex. In: Improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position specic gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res 22:4673 Tkaczuk C, Mietkiewski R, Baazy S (2003) Mycoses of phytophagous mites during the winter time. Biol Control 41(1):110 119 Zare R, Gams W (2001) A revision of Verticillium section Prostrata. Nova Hedwigia 73:1 50 Entomopathogenic fungi against South American tick species Everton Kort Kamp Fernandes Vania Rita Elias Pinheiro Bittencourt Originally published in the journal Experimental and Applied Acarology, Volume 46, Nos 1 4, 71 93. Despite scientic advances, in South America the principal control method for ticks is the use of chemical acaricides. Indiscriminate use of these products causes environmental pollution, food contamination and development of tick resistance to aca- ricides. In vitro studies and eld trials have demonstrated that pathogenic fungal isolates not only cause mortality of many tick species, but also reduce subsequent generations due to effects on their reproductive efcacy. Accordingly, this review presents results of several studies which were conducted in South America. Furthermore, it outlines current information on fungal pathogens of ticks and discusses the need to develop and implement effective strategies for use of entomopathogenic fungi to control ticks in the near future. Keywords Fungal acaricides Biological control Beauveria bassiana Metarhizium anisopliae Anocentor nitens Amblyomma cajennense Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Rhipicephalus sanguineus Introduction Ticks are obligate blood-sucking Arachnids that feed on vertebrates. They are hard bodied, highly fecund, biologically diverse, and economically devastating. However, biological control is quickly becoming one of the more attractive approaches to tick management. Several entomopathogenic fungi are naturally associated with ticks and some have dem- onstrated high virulence under laboratory conditions. Of all the fungal genera and species that have been tested, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana have demonstrated the highest virulence; and therefore, these are the most investigated entomopathogenic fungi regarding their potential for the control of tick species worldwide. Several previous reviews describe generally tick biological control using various pathogens in various locations, as listed by Samish and Rehacek (1999) and Samish et al. This review, however, focuses on the use of entomopathogenic fungi to control important tick species from Southern America, and summarizes ndings and perspectives of several authors attempting to develop effective strategies for biological control of ticks under tropical environmental conditions. Laboratory assays and eld trials Laboratory assays using entomopathogenic fungi are commonly used in studies on bio- logical control of ticks. A laboratory assay is an important test to verify the virulence of a fungal pathogen. However, comparing assay results is difcult due to variations in methods and use of different fungal isolates. Many in vitro studies have used entomopathogenic fungi against eggs (Table 1), larvae (Table 2), nymphs, adults (Table 3) and engorged females (Table 4) of several tick species that occur in South America. The results indicate that certain fungal species are promising alternatives to chemical acaricides for tick control. In most eld trials, conidial suspensions are sprayed directly onto ticks or on pasture plants to control tick infestations (Table 5). As expected, the mortality levels in eld trials were lower than those observed under laboratory conditions. To circumvent these problems, appropriate formulations can be devised to protect the conidia, thereby enhancing their ability to germinate and initiate the cuticle penetration process (Bittencourt et al. When selecting isolates for tick control, in addition to considering virulence, high tolerance to environmental conditions should be also evaluated. Furthermore, solar radiation negatively affects Diseases of Mites and Ticks 75 Table 2 Tick larvae treated in vitro with conidial suspensions of entomopathogenic fungi Study Association between Results fungus and ticka Bittencourt Metarhizium anisopliae and (1) Increased mortality (29. Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) 109 conidia ml-1, respectively) compared to control (1994b) microplus (6. Diseases of Mites and Ticks 77 Table 2 continued Study Association between Results fungus and ticka Fernandes B. Isolation of entomopathogenic fungi from naturally infected ticks Studies have reported that several tick species are naturally infected by pathogenic fungi. The isolation of indigenous entomopathogenic fungi is important for developing isolates that avoid the introduction of new (exotic) fungal isolates for tick biological control in certain environments. Metarhizium anisopliae and (1) Increased mortality (32 45% at 105 108 conidia ml-1, unfed nymphs of A. Diseases of Mites and Ticks 79 Table 3 continued Study Association between fungus Results and ticka M.

Risk factors for pressure 70/50 mm Hg order lincocin 500mg on line, pulse rate of 120 per minute lincocin 500 mg online, disease include and respiratory rate 20 per minute order lincocin 500 mg without prescription. She was moder- a) antacid use, ately ill-appearing, with dry mucous membranes and a dry, fissured tongue. Abdomenal exam revealed b) prior antibiotics (reduces competition by normal ora), and hyperactive bowel sounds and mild diffuse tenderness No skin lesions were seen. Gram stain: mixed unpasteurized goat cheese, whitesh, conta- minated fruits and vegetables) ora. Reduction in the ora as a result of prior antibiotic lyse the infected cell, escaping into the extracellular treatment reduces competition for nutrients (as in case environment and in some cases gaining entry to the 8. Because large numbers of Salmonella organisms are Studies in normal volunteers have revealed that large required to cause disease, gastroenteritis is almost always numbers of bacteria (10-4 to 10-8 organisms) are associated with ingestion of heavily contaminated food. Salmonella-infected human or animal feces can contam- About Shigella Dysentery inate fruits and vegetables. Gram-negative rod, does not ferment lactose, text says infect humans, particularly young children. Resistance to gastric acid means that a small Shigella numbers of organisms (200 bacteria) can cause The gram-negative Shigella bacillus is nonmotile and does disease. Initially grows in the small intestine, and then The four major serologic groups, A through D, are com- spreads to the colon. Shigella contains a series of surface proteins that induce intestinal epithelial cells and M cells to ingest it. Foodborne and waterborne out- Like Salmonella, this organism injects proteins into host breaks may also occur as a consequence of fecal conta- cells, stimulating ruffling. Unlike Salmonella, the mination incidents that are most commonly reported phagocytosed Shigella uses a surface hemolysin to lyse in developing countries, where public health standards the phagosome membrane and escape into the cyto- are poor. There, the bacterium induces the assembly of by Shigella, which may account for some cases in the actin rocket tails that propel it through the cytoplasm. Children in daycare centers have a high When the bacterium reaches the cell periphery, it pushes incidence of infection, as do institutionalized individu- outward to form membrane projections that can be als, particularly mentally challenged children. This combina- Shigella has been attributed to ies, and epidemics of tion of efcient cell-to-cell spread and host-cell destruc- shigellosis have been reported to correlate with heavy y tion produces supercial ulcers in the bowel mucosa and infestations. Campylobacter Shigella is relatively resistant to acid, and can survive in the gastric juices of the stomach for several hours. This Campylobacter are comma-shaped gram-negative rods characteristic explains why ingestion of as few as that, on microscopic examination, are often paired in a 200 bacteria can cause disease. Ideal growth conditions for colon, where it causes an intense inammatory response, C. Shigella has no intermediate animal hosts; medium (10% sheep blood in Brucella agar containing the bacteria reside only in the intestinal tract of humans. As observed with Salmonella, infections are About Campylobacter Gastroenteritis more common in the summer months. Campylobacter is a coma-shaped gram-negative Escherichia coli rod,micro-aerophilic. Internalized by and lives in monocytes and that can identify specic lipopolysaccharide antigens (O intestinal epithelial cells; induces cell death, antigens) and agellar antigens (H antigens) associated bowel ulceration, and intense inammation. Colonize the small gastric acid and requires a high inoculum (more bowel and produce a cholera-like or heat-stable toxin than 104 bacteria). Survives well in chickens because of their These strains are a major cause of travelers diarrhea. It can be ingested by monocytes, where it can survive within the cells for 6 to 3. Endocytosis by intestinal epithelial cells and M small bowel and induce the polymerization of actin cells is also likely to occur. Once intracellular, Campy- laments to form a pedestal directly beneath the site lobacter induces cell death and tissue necrosis leading to of bacterial attachment. This process is associated ulceration of the bowel wall and intense acute inamma- with mild inammation and usually causes watery tion. These strains are transmitted by contami- Campylobacter can gain entry into the bloodstream. This disease primarily affects children bacteremia, often causing little or no diarrhea. This under the age of 3 years, and it is more common in strain s resistance to the bactericidal activity of serum may developing countries. Produce ing to vascular infections, soft-tissue abscesses, and verotoxins or Shiga-like cytotoxins that inhibit pro- meningitis. This species fre- drome is O157:H7; however, other toxin-produc- quently contaminates poultry, and its high carriage rate ing serotypes are being identied with increasing may be partly explained by the high body temperature in frequency. Cattle appear to be the primary reservoir, birds, a condition that would be expected to enhance and the disease is most commonly associated with growth of C.

The biopsycho- social model recognizes that while primary biological disease processes are impor- tant in human health lincocin 500mg discount, our understanding of illness is enhanced by incorporating the additional contributions of psychological and social factors lincocin 500 mg online. Importantly buy lincocin 500mg amex, these three sets of factors interact to inuence the development, manifestations, and Pain in the Elderly 563 Biological factors Psychological factors - Disease severity - Coping - Nociception - Fear-avoidance - Inflammation - Depression - Brain changes - Catastrophizing Chronic pain and aging Social factors - Race/ethnicity - Socioeconomic factors - Social support Fig. Moreover, the biopsychosocial model represents a more comprehensive approach for understanding health and disease in aging [132, 133]. One meta-analysis found that regardless of stimulus modality, pain threshold increased with age, suggesting age-related decreases in pain sensitivity [141]. Also, this age- related increase in pain threshold was slightly larger among women than men. Interestingly, a study of electric shock pain reported that age-related increases in pain thresholds emerged only if the painful stimulus was of short duration, suggest- ing older adults are relatively more sensitive to prolonged stimuli that more robustly engage the somatosensory system [121 ]. Studies of pain tolerance have revealed no age differences in response to thermal and electrical stimuli, but decreased pressure pain tolerance with age [141]. In addition, although not included in the meta-analysis, one study demon- strated dramatically lower tolerance for ischemic pain among older adults [142]. This nding is notable, because this experimental stimulus produces a sustained, deep mus- cle pain that is qualitatively similar to some forms of clinical musculoskeletal pain. In general, Pain in the Elderly 565 temporal summation of heat pain is greater in older versus younger adults [141], suggesting an age-related increase in pain facilitation. Another form of pain facilita- tion occurs in response to capsaicin, a chemical that selectively activates peripheral nociceptive neurons (e. After the primary pain from capsaicin subsides, there remains an increased pain response to mechanical stimuli (i. Zheng and col- leagues [143] reported that capsaicin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia lasted sub- stantially longer in older versus younger adults, which may indicate prolonged pain facilitation. In fact, some studies have found that older adults report pain facilitation in response to the conditioning stimulus. This occurs when a pro- longed heat stimulus is delivered, in which the stimulus is slightly increased in intensity and then returned to the original temperature. A recent study reported that older adults showed reduced offset analgesia compared to younger adults [146]. Riley and colleagues [147] also reported that older adults showed a reduced decay of pain fol- lowing offset of a prolonged heat pain stimulus, which may reect impaired pain inhibition. Also, autonomic responses to painful stimuli were reduced in patients with Alzheimer s as well as those with mild cognitive impairment [150, 151]. In contrast, Gibson and colleagues reported that patients with Alzheimer s disease showed 566 R. While dementia appears to be associated with attenuated pain responses, cognitive perfor- mance in cognitively intact older adults may positively predict pain inhibitory func- tion. Yarnitsky and colleagues [154] recently suggested the concept of a pain modulation prole, which reects an individual s balance of pain inhibition versus pain facilitation. Based on the studies described above, aging is characterized by a pro- nociceptive pain modulation prole that may contribute to the increased risk of certain clinical pain conditions or of more severe or widespread pain in older adults. The factors driving these age-related changes in pain modulation are largely unknown, but are likely to include multiple biological (e. While these brain changes have been linked to declines in cognitive function, it seems plausible that aging effects on the brain could also impact pain processing. Indeed, chronic pain has been associated with decreases in grey and white matter volume [157 159]. For example, total grey matter volume in bromyalgia patients was negatively correlated with sensitivity to digital palpation [160]. Also, in pain-free adults, grey matter volume in several brain regions has been inversely associated with visceral sensitivity [161] and heat pain sensitivity [162]. While no study has yet linked changes in brain structure with age differences in pain processing, a plau- sible hypothesis is that age-related changes in brain morphology contribute to the enhanced pain facilitation and/or reduced pain inhibition observed in older adults. Pain in the Elderly 567 Painful stimuli elicit patterns of neural activity in a variety of brain regions, and age differences in this pain-evoked cerebral activation could help explain age-related changes in pain perception. Two studies using heat pain showed reduced pain- evoked brain activity among older compared to younger adults. In response to pain- ful heat older adults showed lower activation in several cortical regions, including somatosensory cortex, anterior insula, and supplementary motor area [163]. More recently, age was inversely associated with pain-related activation in somatosensory, insular, and premotor cortices [164] and grey matter volumes in the anterior and mid-cingulate cortex were positively correlated with pain ratings. Both of these studies showed decreased pain-related cerebral activation evoked by mild to moder- ate heat pain, which older adults typically report to be less painful. In contrast, Cole and colleagues [165] examined brain responses to pressure pain, to which older adults were more sensitive compared to their younger counterparts. While no age differences emerged in response to a mild pressure pain stimulus, younger adults showed greater activation in the contralateral putamen and caudate nucleus in response to moderate pressure pain. The authors suggested that these age differences may reect an impairment of endogenous pain modulation among older adults.

Indeed this condition can still occur with insufcient shampooing generic lincocin 500mg on-line, however the introduction of silicones into hair conditioners to replace waxes and oils has remedied the situation buy 500mg lincocin amex. Conditioner Formulation Conditioners are available for many different hair types and needs order lincocin 500mg with amex. Typically, a variety of dif- ferent hair-modifying ingredients are combined to yield the nal characteristics of the con- ditioner. The most common conditioning agents and their functions are listed in Table 3 and include quaternaries, lm-formers, proteins, and silicones (22). Quaternary Conditioners The quaternary conditioning agents, also known as quaternaries or quaternary ammonium compounds or quats, are cationic detergents as discussed previously under hair shampoo deter- gents (23). These ingredients are found in both conditioning shampoos and hair conditioners (24). They function to neutralize the negative charge found on the hair shafts thus minimizing static electricity (25). It is the attraction of the positively charged conditioner to the negatively charged hair shafts that allows quat conditioners to resist water rinsing (26). This allows the conditioning agent to remain behind on the hair shafts until subsequent shampooing, provid- ing long-lasting hair beautication. Film-forming Conditioners The second category of conditioning agents is known as lm-formers. This improves hair luster by lling in the protein voids within the hair shafts and reduces static electricity by neutralizing any charges present on the hair shafts. Film-forming conditioners are traditionally used following towel drying of the hair and are sometimes incorporated into conditioning hair styling agents. These areas of the hair shaft devoid of the cuticle create sites for deposition of conditioner protein, which is hydrolyzed to a molecular weight 1000 to 10,000 Daltons (30). Voids may also be present in the cuticle due to hair dyeing, which disrupts the cuticle through exposure to hydrogen peroxide and/or ammonia, or hair permanent waving, which disrupts the cuticle due to ammonium thio- glycolate exposure. The small molecular weight proteins can penetrate the hair shaft through these voids and increase hair fracture strength by 10%. Nonmedicated Grooming Products and Beauty Treatments 63 the proteins diffuse out with subsequent shampooing. Additional protein-containing conditioner use will replace the proteins, temporarily improving hair strength. The source of the protein is not as important as the size of the protein particle and its ability to enter and remain inside the hair shaft (31,32). The ability of protein-containing conditioners to strengthen the hair shaft depends on contact time. The longer the protein conditioner is left in contact with the hair shaft, the more protein that will diffuse into the shaft. Thus, proteins are used in short-contact instant condition- ers applied following shampooing and rinsed for minimal protein penetration and in leave-on conditioners applied prior to shampooing and left on the hair for 30 minutes prior to removal for greater protein penetration. The amount of protein that penetrates the hair shaft determines the nal cosmetic appearance of the conditioned hair and its breaking strength characteristics. Silicones have virtually revolution- ized hair conditioning, both from the standpoint of conditioning shampoos and instant hair conditioners (33). Topical silicone is an amazingly safe material from a dermatologic perspec- tive, since it is hypoallergenic, noncomedogenic, and nonacnegenic. It derives its chemical properties from the alternating silica and oxygen bonds, known as siloxane bonds, which are exceedingly strong (34). The silicone used in topical preparations is an odorless, col- orless, nontoxic liquid. For this reason it is used in hair conditioners, since it will place a thin lm over the hair shaft that resists water rinsing. The most common form of silicone used in hair conditioners is dimethicone, which improves hair manageability by reducing static electricity, minimizes tangles by decreasing friction, and imparts shine by smoothing roughened cuticular scale (35 37). Since silicone can form a thin, nongreasy lm on the hair shaft, it does not create the limp appearance characteristic of other hair-conditioning ingredients. Topical silicone is very safe as there have been no reports of problems arising from its use in shampoos, conditioners, moisturizers, or facial cosmetics. Conditioner Diversity Hair conditioners are available in several types, depending on their intended function and when in the grooming process they are applied (38 40). Instant Conditioners Instant conditioners are aptly named, since they are applied directly from the bottle to the hair once it has been shampooed and rinsed. They are left in contact with the hair briey for 1 5 minutes and then thoroughly rinsed. Due to their short contact time, they provide minimal conditioning and must be used after each shampooing to achieve the desired effect. The need for instant hair conditioners arose after hair shampoo detergents were developed with excel- lent sebum-removing capabilities.

Cytotoxic effects are dependent cell also because they are stronger in human melanoma cells compared to mouse melanoma lincocin 500 mg discount. The cytotoxic activity may also be mediated by the presence of cupric ions (Cu ) in malignant melanoma cells that react with vitamin C to2+ form free radicals in solution effective lincocin 500 mg. Vitamin C also invests into cells 500mg lincocin sale, transforming them chem ically to a normal phenotype fine. Studies of cell surface and ultrastructure suggest that cancer cells after administration of vi tamin C had cytolysis, cell membrane damage, mitochondrial changes, nuclear and nucleo lar reduction and an increase in the formation of phagolysosomes. Changes in cell surface as cytolysis showed predominantly increased synthesis of collagen and disruption of the cell membrane with increased phagocytic activity and apoptotic. The quantitative estimation of cellular organelles shown that vitamin C affects the intracel lular distribution of the organelles, event that plays an important role in the citodifferentia tion of the carcinogenic cell and this is the shared effect that not only vitamin C has, but also vitamin A and E. Changes in the Golgi complex and apoptotic activity and autophagic addi tion to changes in cell surface and in some cases even the reversal of transformed cells to their normal cell types are needed in the possible reduction in incidence of various cancers. It have been mentioned that many of this metabolic effects are mediated by the transcription and translation at genomic level. This inhibition is accompanied by ultrastructural changes mentioned which decreases the cancer progression. Mechanism of action: Have been proposed many mechanisms of the vitamin C activity in the prevention and treatment of cancer: 1. Inhibition of the hyaluronidase, keeping the substances around the tumor intact avoid ing metastasis. Correction of a likely ascorbate deficiency, seen in patients with cancer 472 Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases - A Role for Antioxidants 6. Patients with cancer tend to immune-undertake, showing low levels of ascorbate in their lymphocytes. The survival of immune system is important both for inhibit the carcino gen cell growth phase and to prevent its proliferation. The supplementation with ascor bate increases the number and the effectiveness of the lymphocytes and upgrades the phagocythosis The characteristics of the neoplastic cell and its behavior (invasiveness, selective nutrition and possibly accelerated growth) are caused by microenvironmental depolymerization. This destabilization of the matrix is favored by constant exposure to lysosomal glycosidases con tinually released by the neoplastic cell. The synthesis of collagen is a major factor for the encapsulation of tumors or metastases de creased via the development of a nearly impermeable barrier. A loss of ascorbate significantly reduces the hydroxylation of proline and hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine to lysine respectively, affecting the cross linking of collagen. This disrupts the structure of collagen triple helix, which increases its catabolism s. These values can be normalized with extra supplements of 20-40 mg/d or corresponding to its maximum synthetic rate. The decrease in plasma ascorbic acid in diabetes plays an important role in the abnormali ties of collagen and proteoglycans. These are the 2 major constituents of the extracellular matrix and its abnormalities are associated with the pathogenesis and complications of dia betes. Ascorbic acid enhances the collagen and proteoglycans in fibroblast culture media. Insulin removes the inhibitory effect of glucose on the production of collagen, but the mechanism is not yet known. Thus high con centrations of glucose in diabetes damage the action of ascorbic acid at the cellular level. And in many cases is "asymptomatic" or people who have it doing not give importance. However there have been great efforts to use its measurement in the detection of primary or secondary essential hypertension for decades. Virtually the observed declines in blood pressure and its control in recent years due to better control among individuals diagnosed as hypertensive. Obesity, dietary sodium and alcohol consumption are strongly associat ed with low or high blood pressure values. A high intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and magnesium are associated with for in stance with low pressure. It has also shown an inverse association between plasma vita min C and blood pressure. These subjects have a similar difference in diastolic pressure ranging from 78 to 73 mm Hg, a difference of 6%. These results were consistent in several studies regardless of quintiles being compared.