By C. Amul. Tougaloo College.

Psychologists have devised a way of testing the sensory adaptation of the eye by attaching an instrument that ensures a constant image is maintained on the eye’s inner surface trusted 250 mg cefadroxil. Participants are fitted with a contact lens that has miniature slide projector attached to it purchase cefadroxil 250 mg without prescription. Because the projector follows the exact movements of the eye buy cefadroxil 250 mg line, the same image is always projected, stimulating the same spot, on the retina. The image will begin to vanish, then reappear, only to disappear again, either in pieces [6] or as a whole. One of the major problems in perception is to ensure that we always perceive the same object in the same way, despite the fact that the sensations that it creates on our receptors changes dramatically. The ability to perceive a stimulus as constant despite changes in sensation is known asperceptual constancy. When it is closed, we see it as rectangular, but when it is open, we see only its edge and it appears as a line. But we never perceive the door as changing shape as it swings—perceptual mechanisms take care of the problem for us by allowing us to see a constant shape. When you are outdoors, both colors will be at their brightest, but you will still perceive the white t-shirt as bright and the blue jeans as darker. When you go indoors, the light shining on the clothes will be significantly dimmer, but you will still perceive the t-shirt as bright. This is because we put colors in context and see that, compared to its surroundings, the [7] white t-shirt reflects the most light (McCann, 1992). In the same way, a green leaf on a cloudy day may reflect the same wavelength of light as a brown tree branch does on a sunny day. Illusions occur when the perceptual processes that normally help us correctly perceive the world around us are fooled by a particular situation so that we see something that does not exist or that is incorrect. Square A in the right-hand image looks very different from square B, even though they are exactly the same. The line segment in the bottom arrow looks longer to us than the one on the top, even though they are both actually the same length. It is likely that the illusion is, in part, the result of Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. The illusion is caused, in part, by the monocular distance cue of depth—the bottom line looks like an edge that is normally farther away from us, whereas the top one looks like an edge that is normally closer. The moon illusion refers to the fact that the moon is perceived to be about 50% larger when it is near the horizon than when it is seen overhead, despite the fact that both moons are the same size and cast the same size retinal image. The skyline of the horizon (trees, clouds, outlines of buildings) also gives a cue that the moon is far away, compared to a moon at its zenith. If we look at a horizon moon through a tube of rolled up paper, taking away the surrounding horizon cues, the moon will immediately appear smaller. The monocular depth cue of linear perspective leads us to believe that, given two similar objects, the distant one can only cast the same size retinal image as the closer object if it is larger. Illusions demonstrate that our perception of the world around us may be influenced by our prior knowledge. But the fact that some illusions exist in some cases does not mean that the perceptual system is generally inaccurate—in fact, humans normally become so closely in touch with their Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. The close relationship between people and their environments means that, although illusions can be created in the lab and under some unique situations, they may be less common with active observers in the real [9] world (Runeson, 1988). The Important Role of Expectations in Perception Our emotions, mind-set, expectations, and the contexts in which our sensations occur all have a profound influence on perception. People who are warned that they are about to taste something bad rate what they do taste more negatively than people who are told that the taste won’t be so [10] bad (Nitschke et al. Similarly, participants who see images of the same baby rate it as stronger and bigger when they are told it [12] is a boy as opposed to when they are told it is a girl (Stern & Karraker, 1989), and research participants who learn that a child is from a lower-class background perceive the child’s scores on an intelligence test as lower than people who see the same test taken by a child they are told is [13] from an upper-class background (Darley & Gross, 1983). Plassmann, O‘Doherty, Shiv, and [14] Rangel (2008) found that wines were rated more positively and caused greater brain activity in brain areas associated with pleasure when they were said to cost more than when they were said to cost less. And even experts can be fooled: Professional referees tended to assign more penalty cards to soccer teams for videotaped fouls when they were told that the team had a history of aggressive behavior than when they had no such expectation (Jones, Paull, & Erskine, [15] 2002). When we are hungry, food- related words tend to grab our attention more than non-food-related words (Mogg, Bradley, [16] Hyare, & Lee, 1998), we perceive objects that we can reach as bigger than those that we [17] cannot reach (Witt & Proffitt, 2005), and people who favor a political candidate’s policies Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Chua, [19] Boland, and Nisbett (2005) showed American and Asian graduate students different images, such as an airplane, an animal, or a train, against complex backgrounds. They found that (consistent with their overall individualistic orientation) the American students tended to focus more on the foreground image, while Asian students (consistent with their interdependent orientation) paid more attention to the image’s context. Furthermore, Asian-American students focused more or less on the context depending on whether their Asian or their American identity had been activated. Psychology in Everyday Life: How Understanding Sensation and Perception Can Save Lives Human factors is the field of psychology that uses psychological knowledge, including the principles of sensation and perception, to improve the development of technology. Human factors has worked on a variety of projects, ranging from nuclear reactor control centers and airplane cockpits to cell phones and websites (Proctor & Van Zandt, [20] 2008). For instance, modern televisions and computer monitors were developed on the basis of the trichromatic color theory, using three color elements placed close enough together so that the colors are blended by the eye.

Legal Implications Although in English law the legal definition of “rape” relates to noncon- sensual penile penetration of the mouth discount cefadroxil 250 mg, anus order cefadroxil 250 mg otc, or vagina generic 250 mg cefadroxil overnight delivery, a new offense of assault by penetration has been recently created to cover nonconsensual penetration of the anus or the genitalia by an object or a body part; this new offense has the same maximum sentence as rape. In Scotland, nonconsensual penile–vaginal penetration is defined by common law as “carnal knowledge of a female by a male against her will” (88). Other jurisdictions, such as some American states, define all penetrative acts as sexual assaults subcat- egorized by the degree of force and coercion used. In many jurisdictions, the legal interpretation of “vaginal penetration” refers to penetration of the labia and does not require that the penis actually enter the vagina (89). The age at which a female can legally give consent for penile–vaginal intercourse varies from country to country; for example, in England, the age of consent is 16 years, whereas in California, it is 18 years (90). Anatomy The external female genitalia (vulva) includes the mons pubis, the labia majora, the labia minora, the clitoris, and the vestibule (which incorporates the openings of the urethra and the vagina). Sexual Assualt Examination 85 The hymen is the tissue that partially or completely surrounds the open- ing of the vagina. The hymen may be annular (encircling the vaginal opening), cres- centic (present at the lateral and posterior margins), fimbriated (frilly edged), or, usually after childbirth, present only as interrupted tags or remnants. It is important that the reader refer to atlases that illustrate these variations (2,92). Uncommon congenital vari- ants include two or more hymenal openings, referred to as septate or cribri- form, respectively, and, rarely, complete absence of an opening (imperforate hymen). Indentations or splits in the hymenal rim have been variously described as deficits, concavities, transections, clefts, notches, and, when clearly of recent origin, tears or lacerations (fresh and healed). In this text, the term notch will be used to describe divisions or splits in the hymenal rim. Super- ficial notches have been defined as notches that are less than or equal to half the width of the hymenal rim at the location of the notch, and deep notches have been defined as notches that are more than half the width of the hyme- nal rim at the location of the notch (93). Superficial notches of all aspects of the hymen have been described in both prepubertal (0–8 years) and postpu- bertal females (9. Deep notches of the anterior and lateral aspects of the hymen have been found in 14 of 200 postpubertal females (9. Deep notches of the posterior hymenal margin have not been described in prepubertal females screened for abuse. Deep notches of the hymenal mar- gin have been described among postpubertal females who deny having sexual activity, although because these females were not screened for abuse, it is not possible to state whether these were the result of unreported sexual abuse. The other pertinent anatomic landmarks in this area are the posterior fourchette (where the labia minora unite posteriorly), the fossa navicularis (a relatively concave area of the vestibule bounded anteriorly by the vaginal open- ing, posteriorly by the posterior fourchette, and laterally by the labia minora), and the anterior fourchette (where the labia minora meet anteriorly and form the clitoral hood). The skin of the labia majora and the outer aspects of the labia minora is keratinized squamous epithelium, but only the outer aspects of the labia majora are hair bearing. The skin of the inner aspects of the labia minora and the vesti- bule (including the hymen) is nonkeratinized. This area is usually pink, but in 86 Rogers and Newton the nonestrogenized child, it may appear red because the skin is thinner and consequently the blood vessels beneath its surface are more apparent (97). The forensically relevant areas of the internal female genitalia are the vagina and the cervix. The pertinent landmarks are the vaginal fornices (ante- rior, posterior, right, and left) and the cervical os (opening of the cervical canal). The vagina and cervix are covered by nonkeratinized squamous epithe- lium that normally appears pink in the estrogenized female. Occasionally, the columnar endocervical epithelium, which appears red, may be visible around the cervical os because of physiological or iatrogenic (e. Development The female hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis is developed at the time of birth. The estrogen causes prominence of the labia and clitoris and thickening and redundancy of the hymen. During this period, the external genitalia gradually become less prominent; eventually, the hymen becomes thin and translucent and the tissues appear atrophic; occasionally, the hymen remains thick and fimbriated throughout childhood. The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis is reactivated in late childhood, and the breasts and external genitalia alter accordingly. This endogenous lubrication is enhanced with ovulation and with sexual stimu- lation (102). When the endogenous estrogen levels fall resulting from meno- pause, the vulva and vagina atrophy. Forensic Evidence Although legally it is not necessary to have evidence of ejaculation to prove that vaginal intercourse has occurred, forensic science laboratories are frequently requested to determine whether semen is present on the swabs taken Sexual Assualt Examination 87 from the female genitalia because semen evidence can play a central role in identification of the assailant. The female genitalia should also be sampled if a condom was used during the sexual act (see Heading 11) and if cunnilingus is alleged to have occurred (see Heading 7). It is also important to sample the vagina, vulva, and perineum separately when only anal intercourse is alleged to exclude the possibility of leakage from the vagina to account for semen in the anal canal (see Heading 10). Method of Sampling The scientist is able to provide objective evidence in terms of the quan- tity (determined crudely) and quality of the spermatozoa present and may be asked to interpret the results in the context of the case. When providing expert evidence regarding whether vaginal penetration has occurred, the scientist must be able to rely on the forensic practitioner to obtain the samples in a manner that will refute any later suggestions by the defense that significant quantities of spermatozoa, which were only deposited on the outside of the vulva, could have been accidentally transferred to the high vaginal area during the medical examination (7). It is worth noting that there has been no research to support or refute this hypothesis.

Client demonstrates ability to interact appropriately with others order cefadroxil 250mg, showing respect for self and others discount 250 mg cefadroxil with mastercard. Client is able to verbalize reasons for inability to form close interpersonal relationships with others in the past discount cefadroxil 250mg free shipping. Possible Etiologies (“related to”) Lack of interest in learning [Low self-esteem] [Denial of need for information] [Denial of risks involved with maladaptive lifestyle] Unfamiliarity with information sources Defining Characteristics (“evidenced by”) [History of substance abuse] [Statement of lack of knowledge] [Statement of misconception] [Request for information] [Demonstrated lack of knowledge regarding basic health practices] [Reported or observed inability to take the responsibility for meeting basic health practices in any or all functional pat- tern areas] [History of lack of health-seeking behavior] Inappropriate or exaggerated behaviors (e. An adequate database is necessary for the development of an effective teaching plan. Teaching will be ineffective if presented at a level or by a method inappropriate to the client’s ability to learn. Provide information regarding healthful strate- gies for activities of daily living as well as about harmful effects of substance abuse on the body. Include suggestions for community resources to assist client when adaptability is impaired. Input from individuals who are directly involved in the potential change increases the likelihood of a positive outcome. Implement teaching plan at a time that facilitates, and in a place that is conducive to, optimal learning (e. Provide activities for client and significant others in which to actively participate during the learning exercise. Ask client and significant others to demonstrate knowledge gained by verbalizing information regarding positive self- care practices. Verbalization of knowledge gained is a mea- surable method of evaluating the teaching experience. Provide positive feedback for participation, as well as for accurate demonstration of knowledge gained. Positive feed- back enhances self-esteem and encourages repetition of desirable behaviors. Client is able to verbalize available community resources for obtaining knowledge about and help with deficits related to health care. Incest is the occurrence of sexual contacts or interaction between, or sexual exploitation of, close relatives, or between participants who are related to each other by a kinship bond that is regarded as a pro- hibition to sexual relations (e. Neglect of a Child Physical neglect of a child includes refusal of or delay in seeking health care, abandonment, expulsion from the home or refusal to allow a runaway to return home, and inadequate supervision. Emotional neglect refers to a chronic failure by the parent or care- taker to provide the child with the hope, love, and support nec- essary for the development of a sound, healthy personality. Physical Abuse of an Adult Physical abuse of an adult may be defined as behavior used with the intent to cause harm and to establish power and con- trol over another person. It may include slaps, punches, biting, hair-pulling, choking, kicking, stabbing or shooting, or forcible restraint. Sexual Abuse of an Adult Sexual abuse of an adult may be defined as the expression of power and dominance by means of sexual violence, most com- monly by men over women, although men may also be victims of sexual assault. Sexual assault is identified by the use of force and executed against the person’s will. Various components of the neurological system in both humans and animals have been implicated in both the facilitation and inhibition of aggressive impulses. Areas of the brain that may be in- volved include the temporal lobe, the limbic system, and the amygdaloid nucleus (Tardiff, 2003). Studies show that various neurotransmitters—in particular norepinephrine, dopa- mine, and serotonin—may play a role in the facilitation and inhibition of aggressive impulses (Hollander, Berlin, & Stein, 2008). Some studies have implicated heredity as a component in the predisposition to aggressive behav- ior. The psychodynamic theorists imply that unmet needs for satisfaction and security re- sult in an underdeveloped ego and a weak superego. It is thought that when frustration occurs, aggression and vio- lence supply this individual with a dose of power and pres- tige that boosts the self-image and validates a significance to his or her life that is lacking. The immature ego cannot prevent dominant id behaviors from occurring, and the weak superego is unable to produce feelings of guilt. This theory postulates that aggressive and violent behaviors are learned from prestigious and influential role models. Individuals who were abused as children or whose parents disciplined with physical pun- ishment are more likely to behave in a violent manner as adults (Tardiff, 2003). Social scientists believe that aggres- sive behavior is primarily a product of one’s culture and social structure. Societal influences may contribute to violence when individuals believe that their needs and desires cannot be met through conventional means, and they resort to delinquent behaviors in an effort to obtain desired ends. They may present with different colors of bluish-purple to yellowish-green (indicating various stages of healing).